1. South Asia as a region
In this chapter, South Asia means the eight members of SAARC: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives (founders, 1985) and Afghanistan (member from 2007).
- Shared geography (Himalayas, Indian Ocean, great rivers) and long shared history.
- Great diversity of languages, religions and political systems.
- India is much larger than the rest, which shapes regional relations.
- Across the region, popular demand for democracy has repeatedly returned, even after setbacks.
| Country | Capital | Note |
|---|---|---|
| India | New Delhi | Largest in area, population and economy |
| Pakistan | Islamabad | Democracy interrupted by military rule |
| Bangladesh | Dhaka | Independent in 1971 |
| Nepal | Kathmandu | Republic since 2008 |
| Bhutan | Thimphu | Constitutional monarchy; first elections 2008 |
| Sri Lanka | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (official); Colombo | Independent in 1948 |
| Maldives | Malé | Island republic |
| Afghanistan | Kabul | Joined SAARC in 2007 |
Key terms
- South Asia
The region formed by the eight SAARC members.
- Constitutional monarchy
A system with a king as head of state but elected governments that hold real power.
2. Pakistan and Bangladesh
Pakistan: elected rule 1947–58; General Ayub Khan (1958) and then Yahya Khan; civilian rule under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971–77); General Zia-ul-Haq (1977–88); elected governments 1988–99 (Benazir Bhutto, Nawaz Sharif); General Pervez Musharraf (1999–2008); civilian rule again from 2008.
Why democracy was fragile: the army's weight in society and politics; backing at times from clergy and big landowners; conflict with India; outside powers dealing with military rulers during the Cold War. Demand for democracy nevertheless survived.
Bangladesh: East Pakistan resented the imposition of Urdu and its weak share of power. The Awami League of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won the 1970 elections, power was not transferred, the army cracked down, and a liberation struggle backed by India led to independence in December 1971. The 1972 constitution was democratic and secular; in 1975 it became a presidential, one-party system and Mujib was killed. Military-led rule under Ziaur Rahman (BNP) and H. M. Ershad lasted until a mass movement in 1990. Multi-party elections since 1991 (a military-backed caretaker in 2007–08).
Key terms
- Awami League
The party of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman that led the movement for Bangladesh.
- Military takeover (coup)
Seizure of government by the armed forces.
3. Nepal: from monarchy to republic
- 1990: a pro-democracy movement wins a constitutional monarchy.
- 1996: the Maoists begin an armed insurgency.
- 2005: the king dismisses the government and rules directly.
- April 2006: a mass movement of parties and people forces him to restore parliament; a peace agreement brings the Maoists into politics.
- 2008: the elected Constituent Assembly abolishes the monarchy.
- 2015: a federal democratic republican constitution is adopted.
| Force | What it wanted (1996–2006) |
|---|---|
| The king | To keep real power, and in 2005 to rule directly |
| Mainstream political parties | Parliamentary democracy with a limited role for the king |
| The Maoists | An end to the monarchy and a new political and social order; armed struggle until 2006 |
Key terms
- Maoists (Nepal)
Communist insurgents who fought the monarchy from 1996 and joined the peace process in 2006.
- Constituent Assembly
An elected body that writes a constitution.
4. Sri Lanka: ethnic conflict and democracy
- Independent in 1948; politics dominated by the Sinhala majority.
- 1956: Sinhala made the sole official language; Tamils felt discriminated against in language, jobs and education.
- Demands for autonomy turned into militancy; the LTTE sought a separate Tamil Eelam; civil war from 1983.
- 1987: India–Sri Lanka Accord; the IPKF was sent but became unpopular and left in 1990.
- A ceasefire in 2002 broke down; the war ended in 2009 with the LTTE's defeat.
- Sri Lanka kept elected governments throughout and has relatively good literacy and life expectancy; it opened its economy early (1977).
Key terms
- LTTE
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, the armed group that fought for a separate Tamil state.
- IPKF
Indian Peace Keeping Force, sent to Sri Lanka in 1987 under the bilateral accord.
5. India and Pakistan
Conflicts: Kashmir war 1947–48; war of 1965; war of 1971 (Bangladesh); Kargil 1999. Other issues: Siachen, Sir Creek, sharing of river waters, an arms race (both nuclear-armed after 1998).
Agreements and peace efforts: Indus Waters Treaty 1960 (World Bank mediation); Tashkent Agreement 1966 (Soviet mediation); Simla Agreement 1972 (peaceful, bilateral settlement); the Delhi–Lahore bus and declaration of 1999; talks and confidence-building measures.
Key terms
- Confidence-building measures
Steps such as contacts, notifications and talks that reduce suspicion between rivals.
- Bilateral
Between two countries only, without outside mediation.
6. India and its other neighbours
- Bangladesh: India supported independence in 1971; Ganga waters treaty (1996); Land Boundary Agreement put into effect in 2015, exchanging enclaves. Issues: other rivers, movement of people.
- Nepal: open border under the 1950 treaty; trade and development cooperation; differences at times over trade and ties with other powers.
- Sri Lanka: trade links and a free trade agreement (1998); the IPKF episode was a difficult chapter.
- Bhutan: close ties; hydroelectric cooperation.
- Maldives: India helped foil a coup attempt in 1988.
India's size makes it a valued partner but also makes smaller neighbours cautious about domination.
| Neighbour | Cooperation (examples) | Issues raised at times |
|---|---|---|
| Bangladesh | Support in 1971; Ganga waters treaty 1996; enclave exchange 2015 | Sharing of other rivers; movement of people across the border |
| Nepal | Open border; 1950 treaty; trade and development projects | Trade terms; Nepal's ties with other powers |
| Sri Lanka | Trade links; free trade agreement (1998) | The IPKF episode of 1987–90; fishermen's disputes |
| Bhutan | Hydroelectric projects; close friendship | Few serious issues |
| Maldives | Help against the 1988 coup attempt; tourism and trade | Occasional political differences |
Key terms
- Enclave
A small area of one country completely surrounded by another country's territory.
7. SAARC and SAFTA
- Founded: Dhaka, December 1985; secretariat in Kathmandu; Afghanistan joined in 2007.
- Aims: welfare, economic growth, social and cultural development, mutual trust and collective self-reliance.
- Rules: decisions by unanimity; bilateral and contentious issues excluded.
- SAFTA: signed 2004 (Islamabad), in force 2006; aims to cut tariffs among members.
- Limits: India–Pakistan tension, asymmetry of size, low regional trade; no summit since 2014 (as of 2024).
- Outside powers: the United States and China have important ties in the region.
| For SAARC | Against (limits) |
|---|---|
| Regular contact among officials and leaders | India–Pakistan tension delays decisions and summits |
| Cooperation in agriculture, health, disasters | Unanimity rule; bilateral issues excluded |
| SAFTA to reduce trade barriers | Regional trade still small |
| A forum where rivals can meet | Smaller members wary of India's size |
Key terms
- SAARC
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, founded in 1985.
- SAFTA
South Asian Free Trade Area, an agreement to reduce tariffs among SAARC members.
Exam tips
Common mistakes
- Mixing up Tashkent (1966) and Simla (1972), or Ziaur Rahman and Zia-ul-Haq.
- Saying the UN brokered the Indus Waters Treaty: it was the World Bank.
- Saying SAARC was formed in 1971 or that its secretariat is in Delhi: 1985, Kathmandu.
- Writing that the IPKF was a SAARC or UN force: it was sent under the bilateral 1987 accord.
- Forgetting that Nepal's republic (2008) and constitution (2015) are different events.
How marks are usually awarded
- 1 mark: one correct option or fact.
- 2 marks: two points, or a point with explanation (about 40 words).
- 3 marks: three distinct points (about 60–80 words).
- 5 marks: five points with dates and examples (about 100–120 words); "evaluate" needs both sides and a judgement.
- Source-based: quote briefly, then add your own knowledge.