1. Why the environment is a global political issue
From the 1960s, concern grew about the effects of economic growth on the planet.
Main concerns: little new cultivable land and much degraded farmland; lack of safe drinking water for very many people; loss of natural forests and biodiversity; overfishing and coastal pollution; thinning of the ozone layer.
Why it is political: the damage crosses borders, so no government can fix it alone; protection has costs, and states argue over who pays; scarce resources create competition.
| Concern | Why it worries the world |
|---|---|
| Farmland | Little new land to cultivate; much existing land losing fertility |
| Water | Safe drinking water still out of reach for very many people |
| Forests | Loss of natural forests reduces biodiversity and harms climate |
| Oceans | Overfishing and coastal pollution |
| Ozone layer | Thinning exposes life to harmful radiation |
Key terms
- Biodiversity
The variety of plant and animal life in an area; it falls as forests are lost.
- Ozone layer
A layer in the upper atmosphere that shields life from harmful radiation.
2. From Stockholm to Rio
- 1972: the Club of Rome's Limits to Growth warned of resource depletion as population rises; a UN conference at Stockholm led to UNEP.
- 1987: the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, popularised sustainable development.
- 1992: the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro produced the climate change and biodiversity conventions, forest principles and Agenda 21.
Rio divide: the North focused on ozone depletion and global warming; the South wanted environmental rules linked to development. Agreement was reached on ecologically responsible growth. Criticism: Agenda 21 was said to favour growth over conservation.
| North (developed) | South (developing) | |
|---|---|---|
| Main concern | Ozone depletion, global warming | Link environment with development |
| Wants | Commitments from all major emitters | Room to grow; finance and technology |
Key terms
- Sustainable development
Development that meets present needs without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs.
- Agenda 21
The list of development practices for sustainable development adopted at Rio in 1992.
3. The global commons
Global commons: areas outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any state, needing common governance: the earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.
Difficulties: scientific uncertainty delays agreement; unequal technology lets advanced states benefit most (deep-sea mining, satellites); every party must agree to change rules.
Successes: the Antarctic Treaty (1959) keeps the continent for peaceful use and science, with a later environmental protocol (1991); the ozone hole found over Antarctica in the mid-1980s led to the Montreal Protocol (1987) phasing out ozone-depleting substances.
| Difficulty | Imagined illustration |
|---|---|
| Scientific uncertainty | States argue about how fast a resource is being damaged |
| Unequal technology | Only rich states can mine the deep sea or launch satellites |
| No single authority | Every party must agree before rules change |
Key terms
- Global commons
Regions beyond the jurisdiction of any state, such as the atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.
- Montreal Protocol
The 1987 agreement to phase out substances that damage the ozone layer.
4. Common but differentiated responsibilities and climate agreements
CBDR: all states share the duty to protect the environment (common), but the developed countries, responsible for most past emissions and with more resources, should carry a larger burden and help others (differentiated). The principle appears in the Rio Declaration and the climate convention.
- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992): act on equity and CBDR; developed countries to take the lead.
- Kyoto Protocol (1997): binding cuts for industrialised countries; India and China had no binding targets.
- Paris Agreement (2015): every party sets a nationally determined contribution.
| Agreement | Year | Main idea |
|---|---|---|
| UN Framework Convention on Climate Change | 1992 | Act on equity and common but differentiated responsibilities |
| Kyoto Protocol | 1997 | Binding cuts for industrialised countries only |
| Paris Agreement | 2015 | Every party sets its own national pledge |
Key terms
- CBDR
Common but differentiated responsibilities: a shared duty with a heavier burden on the developed countries.
- Kyoto Protocol
The 1997 agreement that set binding greenhouse gas targets for industrialised countries.
5. India's stand
- India signed and ratified Kyoto in August 2002, with no binding target as a developing country.
- Per capita: India's emissions per person are a small fraction of those of developed countries.
- Historical responsibility: the gases already in the atmosphere came mainly from early industrial nations.
- CBDR and support: developed countries should lead and provide finance and clean technology.
- Right to development: climate action must leave room for removing poverty.
At home: the Energy Conservation Act (2001), cleaner fuels for vehicles, a national action plan on climate change with missions such as solar power and energy efficiency, and promotion of renewable energy.
| Point | India's position |
|---|---|
| Kyoto | Signed and ratified in 2002; no binding cut as a developing country |
| Per capita | Emissions per person far below those of rich countries |
| History | Most accumulated gases came from early industrial nations |
| Ask | Finance and clean technology from richer partners |
Key terms
- Per capita emissions
Total emissions of a country divided by its population.
- Historical responsibility
The idea that countries which emitted most in the past should do most now.
6. Movements, resource geopolitics and indigenous peoples
Environmental movements are mostly local and people-led:
- Forest movements, e.g. Chipko (1970s, Himalayan hills of present-day Uttarakhand).
- Anti-dam movements, e.g. the Narmada Bachao Andolan; similar campaigns elsewhere, such as in Australia.
- Movements against mining that defend land, water and sacred sites.
Resource geopolitics: competition among states for resources. Oil is vital and concentrated in a few regions, notably West Asia, so it shapes rivalry and alliances. Water: shared rivers can set upstream against downstream states.
Indigenous peoples: descendants of a land's original inhabitants who keep their own ways of life. Core issues: land and forest rights, displacement by projects, recognition and a voice. International steps: World Council of Indigenous Peoples (1975), UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations (1982), UN Declaration on their rights (2007).
| Year | International step |
|---|---|
| 1975 | World Council of Indigenous Peoples formed |
| 1982 | UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations |
| 2007 | UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples |
Key terms
- Resource geopolitics
Competition and conflict among states over access to natural resources.
- Displacement
Forced movement of people from their land, for example by a dam or mine.
- Indigenous peoples
Descendants of the original inhabitants of a land who maintain their own traditions.
Exam tips
Common mistakes
- Mixing up the Kyoto years: agreed in 1997, ratified by India in 2002.
- Saying Kyoto bound developing countries: it bound industrialised countries only.
- Naming only two global commons: there are four standard examples.
- Explaining CBDR with only one half: give the common duty and the differentiated burden.
- Writing opinions about current disputes: stick to concepts and agreed facts.
How marks are usually awarded
- 1 mark: correct option or a one-line fact.
- 2 marks: two points, or a definition plus an example.
- 3 marks: three distinct points.
- 5 marks: five points, often including an example and a balanced conclusion.
- Source parts: quote the line, name the concept, explain.