1. The changes of 1989–92
- 1989: the Congress lost its majority; a National Front government under V. P. Singh took office with outside support from the BJP and the Left.
- 1990: the Mandal decision; the National Front government fell in November and Chandra Shekhar formed a government with Congress support.
- May 1991: Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated during the election campaign in Tamil Nadu.
- 1991: a Congress government under P. V. Narasimha Rao began the new economic policy.
- December 1992: the demolition at Ayodhya.
| Development (around 1989–92) | Why it mattered |
|---|---|
| 1989 election: no party wins a majority | Beginning of the coalition era |
| Mandal decision, August 1990 | Backward-caste politics becomes central |
| New economic policy, 1991 | Shift in economic direction |
| Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, May 1991 | Change in Congress leadership |
| Ayodhya dispute, demolition in December 1992 | Religion and secularism at the centre of debate |
Key terms
- Hung Parliament
A Lok Sabha in which no party or pre-poll alliance has a majority.
2. The coalition era, 1989–2014
Governments: National Front (1989–90); Chandra Shekhar (1990–91); Congress under Rao (1991–96); a BJP-led government of about two weeks (1996); United Front under H. D. Deve Gowda and I. K. Gujral (1996–98, Congress support from outside); NDA under A. B. Vajpayee (1998–2004, lost a confidence vote by one vote in April 1999 and returned after the 1999 election); UPA under Manmohan Singh (2004–14).
Features: no single-party majority; outside support; a common minimum programme; bargaining power of small partners; risk of a government falling when a partner leaves.
| Years | Government | How it held a majority |
|---|---|---|
| 1989–90 | National Front (V. P. Singh) | Outside support of the BJP and the Left |
| 1990–91 | Chandra Shekhar | Outside support of the Congress |
| 1991–96 | Congress (P. V. Narasimha Rao) | Minority at first; later gained enough support |
| 1996–98 | United Front (Deve Gowda, then Gujral) | Outside support of the Congress |
| 1998–2004 | NDA (A. B. Vajpayee) | Pre-poll alliance led by the BJP |
| 2004–14 | UPA (Manmohan Singh) | Alliance led by the Congress; Left support till 2008 |
| Feature | What it looks like |
|---|---|
| No single-party majority | Several parties needed to reach 272 |
| Outside support | A party backs the government without ministers |
| Common minimum programme | Written agenda all partners accept |
| Bargaining power | Small partners seek posts and policies |
| Instability risk | A partner leaving can bring a government down |
Key terms
- Coalition government
A government formed by two or more parties together.
- Outside support
Voting for a government in the House without joining its ministry.
- Common minimum programme
The shared agenda that coalition partners agree to follow.
3. Mandal and the political rise of the OBCs
- 1978: the Janata government appointed the Second Backward Classes Commission under B. P. Mandal; report in 1980.
- It recommended 27 per cent reservation for OBCs in educational institutions and government jobs.
- August 1990: the National Front government announced OBC reservation in central government jobs; protests by some, strong support from others.
- 1992, Indra Sawhney case: the Supreme Court upheld the decision, kept total reservation generally within 50 per cent and excluded the creamy layer.
Political effects: backward castes organised; parties with strong OBC support grew, especially in the north; every party now sought these votes. The Bahujan Samaj Party (1984, Kanshi Ram) grew among Dalit voters in this period.
| Group | Share of central government posts |
|---|---|
| Other Backward Classes | 27 per cent |
| Scheduled Castes | 15 per cent |
| Scheduled Tribes | 7.5 per cent |
| Total | 49.5 per cent (within the 50 per cent ceiling) |
Key terms
- OBC
Other Backward Classes: socially and educationally backward groups other than SCs and STs.
- Creamy layer
The better-off section among OBCs, excluded from OBC reservation.
4. Communalism, secularism and democracy
- 1985: the Shah Bano judgment on maintenance and the 1986 law started a national debate on personal law and secularism.
- 1986: a court order led to the opening of the locks of the disputed structure at Ayodhya.
- 1990: a rath yatra from Somnath towards Ayodhya.
- 6 December 1992: demolition of the Babri Masjid; violence in many places; the UP government dismissed; a commission of inquiry appointed.
- 2002: after a fire on a train at Godhra, violence spread across Gujarat; the NHRC examined the state's response.
- November 2019: the Supreme Court decided the title dispute: the site for a temple through a trust, and five acres elsewhere in Ayodhya for a mosque.
Lesson for democracy: equal protection of every citizen and peaceful, legal settlement of disputes.
| Communal politics | Secular democracy |
|---|---|
| Divides people by religion | Treats every citizen as equal |
| Claims one community is superior or threatened by others | State keeps equal distance from all religions |
| Can lead to violence and fear | Law protects every life and property alike |
| Event | Institutional response |
|---|---|
| Demolition, December 1992 | State government dismissed; President's Rule; commission of inquiry |
| Violence in Gujarat, 2002 | National Human Rights Commission examined the state's response |
| Title dispute | Settled by the Supreme Court in November 2019 |
Key terms
- Communalism
Politics that divides people on the basis of religion.
- Secularism
Equal treatment of all religions by the state and equal rights for all citizens.
5. The emerging consensus
- New economic policies: accepted by most parties, with differences of degree.
- Backward-caste claims: representation and reservation accepted across parties.
- State-level parties: accepted as partners in central government.
- Pragmatism: alliances formed to win and govern, not only on shared ideology.
| Element of the new consensus | Example |
|---|---|
| Agreement on new economic policies | Reforms continued under different governments after 1991 |
| Acceptance of backward-caste claims | All major parties accepted OBC reservation |
| Role of state-level parties | They shared power at the Centre in UF, NDA and UPA |
| Pragmatism over ideology | Alliances across ideological lines |
Key terms
- Pragmatism
Acting on practical considerations rather than fixed ideological positions.
6. Lok Sabha elections, 2014–2024 (dated facts)
- 2014: the BJP won 282 seats, the first single-party majority since 1984; the NDA formed the government with Narendra Modi as Prime Minister.
- 2019: the BJP won 303 seats; the NDA continued in office.
- 2024: the BJP won 240 seats, below the majority mark of 272; the NDA formed the government with its allies and Narendra Modi was sworn in for a third term in June 2024.
Seat figures are as commonly reported. Answers on recent politics should state facts and balanced arguments, not opinions about parties or leaders.
| Election | Largest party (seats) | Majority on its own? | Government |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2014 | BJP (282) | Yes | NDA; Narendra Modi PM |
| 2019 | BJP (303) | Yes | NDA; Narendra Modi PM |
| 2024 | BJP (240) | No (32 short) | NDA; Narendra Modi PM, third term |
Key terms
- Majority mark
272 of the 543 elected Lok Sabha seats.
Exam tips
Common mistakes
- Saying Rajiv Gandhi was Prime Minister in 1991: he was campaigning, in opposition.
- Dating the Mandal Commission to 1990: it was appointed in 1978; the decision came in 1990.
- Saying the BJP won a majority on its own in 2024: the NDA formed the government.
- Writing opinions about current parties or leaders: give facts and balanced arguments.
How marks are usually awarded
- 1 mark: one correct option, date or term.
- 2–3 marks: one explained point per mark, with a date or example.
- 5 marks: five numbered points; "examine" or "evaluate" needs both sides and a conclusion.
- Source questions: identify, quote the line, explain.