1. Rice: requirements and methods
- Temperature: high, over about 22–25 °C during growth.
- Rainfall: 100–200 cm or more; standing water for much of the growing period; irrigation where rain is less (Punjab, Haryana).
- Soil: clayey or loamy alluvium that holds water; deltas, river valleys, coastal plains.
- Relief and labour: flat land or terraces; plentiful cheap labour.
- Methods: broadcasting, drilling, dibbling, transplantation — seed sown in a nursery → seedlings uprooted after four to six weeks → planted in rows in a puddled, flooded field. The Japanese method adds HYV seeds, heavy manuring and row planting.
| Method | Feature |
|---|---|
| Broadcasting | Seed scattered by hand |
| Drilling | Seed sown in lines |
| Transplantation | Nursery seedlings planted in flooded rows |
Key terms
- Transplantation
Raising rice seedlings in a nursery and planting them in rows in a flooded field after four to six weeks.
- Puddling
Ploughing a flooded field into soft mud so that it holds water for transplanted rice.
2. Rice: producing states
- Leading states: West Bengal (a leading producer — largest as of the early 2020s), Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Bihar.
- West Bengal can raise three crops a year: aus (autumn), aman (winter, main crop), boro (summer, irrigated).
- Deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery are major rice areas (canals, alluvium, heat).
- Punjab and Haryana grow rice mainly for sale with canal and tube-well irrigation.
| Region | Example states |
|---|---|
| Delta and east | West Bengal, Odisha |
| Ganga plain | Uttar Pradesh, Bihar |
| Irrigated north-west | Punjab, Haryana |
Key terms
- Aman
The main winter rice crop of West Bengal, sown with the monsoon and harvested in early winter.
3. Wheat
- Season: rabi — sown October–December, harvested March–April.
- Temperature: cool and moist while growing (about 10–15 °C); warm, dry and sunny for ripening (about 20–25 °C).
- Rainfall: 50–75 cm; light winter rain from western disturbances helps in Punjab and Haryana; irrigation elsewhere.
- Soil: well-drained loamy alluvium; black soils of Malwa.
- Dangers: frost at flowering, hail, a hot spell in March.
- Leading states: Uttar Pradesh (a leading producer — largest as of the early 2020s), Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan.
- Two zones: Ganga–Satluj plains of the north-west; black-soil region of the Deccan and Malwa.
| Stage | Weather needed |
|---|---|
| Growing | Cool, moist |
| Ripening | Warm, dry, sunny |
Key terms
- Rabi crop
A crop sown in winter after the monsoon and harvested in spring, such as wheat or gram.
- Western disturbances
Winter low-pressure systems from the Mediterranean region that bring light rain to north-west India.
4. Millets
| Millet | Temperature | Rainfall (approx.) | Soil | A leading state (early 2020s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jowar | 27–32 °C | 50–100 cm | Black, red | Maharashtra |
| Bajra | 25–30 °C | 40–50 cm | Sandy | Rajasthan |
| Ragi | Warm, dry | Moderate | Red, light | Karnataka |
Why suited to dry areas: drought tolerance; short growing season; grow on poor, sandy or shallow soils; need few inputs; nutritious (fibre, iron, calcium) and give fodder.
| Millet | Soil |
|---|---|
| Jowar | Black |
| Bajra | Sandy |
| Ragi | Red |
Key terms
- Nutri-cereals
A name for millets that stresses their high fibre, iron and calcium content.
5. Pulses
- Kharif pulses: arhar (tur), moong, urad. Rabi pulses: gram (chana), masoor, peas.
- Needs: about 20–27 °C; low to moderate rain (roughly 25–60 cm); light loams, black and red soils; mostly rain-fed.
- Crop rotation: legumes have root nodules with bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen, enriching the soil for the next crop and saving fertiliser.
- Diet: the main protein source for a large vegetarian population.
- Leading states: Madhya Pradesh (a leading producer — largest as of the early 2020s), Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka.
- India still imports some pulses because yields are low and demand is high (as of the early 2020s).
| Season | Pulses |
|---|---|
| Kharif | Arhar, moong, urad |
| Rabi | Gram, masoor, peas |
Key terms
- Legume
A plant of the pea family whose root nodules hold nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
- Crop rotation
Growing different crops one after another on the same field to keep the soil fertile.
6. Working with crop data
- Yield = production ÷ area.
- Production = yield × area.
- Regional average yield = total production ÷ total area (not the mean of district yields).
- Share of area = district area ÷ total area × 100.
- High yields usually mean assured irrigation, HYV seeds and fertiliser; low yields suggest rain-fed land and poorer soils.
| Measure | Formula |
|---|---|
| Yield | Production ÷ area |
| Average yield | Total production ÷ total area |
Key terms
- Yield
The amount of crop produced from one unit of land, such as tonnes per hectare.
Exam tips
Common mistakes
- Saying rice grows best in sandy soil or wheat needs heavy rain.
- Mixing up kharif and rabi pulses (gram is rabi; arhar is kharif).
- Forgetting the warm, dry ripening period when explaining why wheat is a rabi crop.
- Averaging district yields instead of dividing total production by total area.
How marks are usually awarded
- Requirements (2–3 marks): temperature, rainfall and soil with values.
- Methods (3 marks): the three steps of transplantation in order.
- Reasons (1 mark each): a clear geographical cause linked to a named area.
- Data (2–3 marks): working shown, answer with unit.