1. Economic exploitation
- Drain of wealth: salaries and pensions of British officials, home charges, interest on loans and profits of British firms left India without equal return; argued in detail by Dadabhai Naoroji (Poverty and Un-British Rule in India).
- Ruin of handicrafts: cheap machine-made British goods and high duties on Indian goods in Britain destroyed artisan livelihoods.
- Peasants: heavy land revenue, debt to moneylenders, loss of land; famines such as 1876–78 with inadequate relief.
| Change | Effect on Indian artisans |
|---|---|
| Cheap machine-made British cloth enters India | Local weavers cannot match the price |
| Indian goods face high duties in Britain | Export markets are lost |
| Courts and nobles who bought fine crafts decline | Home demand for luxury goods falls |
| Artisans move to farming as labourers | More pressure on land and more poverty |
Key terms
- Drain of wealth
The flow of India's wealth to Britain without an equal return, as described by early nationalists.
- Home charges
Payments made in Britain from Indian revenues for the administration of India.
2. Repressive and insensitive policies
- Lord Lytton (Viceroy 1876–80): Delhi Durbar, 1877, to proclaim Queen Victoria Empress of India, held during a famine.
- Vernacular Press Act, 1878: curbed Indian-language newspapers; English papers exempt. Repealed by Lord Ripon in 1882.
- Arms Act, 1878: Indians needed a licence to keep arms; Europeans exempt.
- Ilbert Bill, 1883 (Ripon): would let Indian judges try Europeans in criminal cases; European protest forced a compromise; Indians saw racial prejudice and the power of organised agitation.
| Measure (Lord Lytton, 1876–80) | Year | Why Indians resented it |
|---|---|---|
| Delhi Durbar to proclaim the Queen Empress of India | 1877 | Lavish spending during a severe famine |
| Vernacular Press Act | 1878 | Curbed Indian-language papers; English papers left free |
| Arms Act | 1878 | Licence needed by Indians; Europeans exempt |
| Imagined grievance in a district | Kind of cause |
|---|---|
| A weaver's looms stand idle because mill cloth is cheaper | Economic |
| A teacher must apply for a licence to keep a gun his European neighbour keeps freely | Repressive (Arms Act) |
| A Marathi weekly is warned for criticising famine relief | Repressive (Press Act) |
| A farmer borrows to pay revenue after a failed monsoon | Economic |
Key terms
- Vernacular
In an Indian language rather than English.
- Ilbert Bill
A Bill of 1883 to let Indian judges try European offenders; diluted after European protest.
3. Socio-religious reform movements
- Raja Rammohan Roy: Brahmo Samaj (1828); campaign against sati (banned 1829 under Lord William Bentinck); supported modern education and women's rights.
- Jyotiba Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873); with Savitribai Phule, a school for girls in Pune; fought caste discrimination.
- Swami Dayananda Saraswati: Arya Samaj (1875); return to the Vedas; against idol worship, caste by birth and child marriage; education (later DAV schools).
- Swami Vivekananda: disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahansa; Chicago, 1893; Ramakrishna Mission (1897); service to the poor; self-confidence.
| Reformer | Organisation and year | Main work |
|---|---|---|
| Raja Rammohan Roy | Brahmo Samaj, 1828 | Against sati (banned 1829); modern education; women's rights |
| Jyotiba Phule | Satyashodhak Samaj, 1873 | Education of girls and lower castes; against caste discrimination |
| Swami Dayananda Saraswati | Arya Samaj, 1875 | Return to the Vedas; against caste by birth and child marriage |
| Swami Vivekananda | Ramakrishna Mission, 1897 | Chicago address 1893; service to the poor; self-confidence |
| Imagined description in a quiz | Reformer |
|---|---|
| Opened a girls' school in Pune with his wife | Jyotiba Phule |
| Campaigned until the burning of widows was banned | Raja Rammohan Roy |
| Spoke at a world gathering of religions in 1893 | Swami Vivekananda |
| Asked Hindus to go back to the Vedas | Swami Dayananda Saraswati |
Key terms
- Sati
The practice of burning a widow on her husband's funeral pyre, banned in 1829.
- Satyashodhak Samaj
Society of Seekers of Truth, founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873.
4. How reform helped nationalism
- Attacked social evils, making society more just and united.
- Revived pride in Indian heritage and self-confidence.
- Spread education and a spirit of reason and enquiry.
- Gave self-respect to women and the oppressed, widening participation in public life.
Key terms
- National consciousness
The feeling among people of different regions that they belong to one nation with common interests.
5. The Press
- Nationalist papers: Amrita Bazar Patrika (Calcutta; Bengali, then English from 1878), The Hindu (Madras, 1878), Kesari (Marathi; Tilak), The Bengalee (Surendranath Banerjee).
- Roles: reported and criticised government policy; spread political awareness; carried leaders' ideas; linked regions into a shared opinion.
- Indian-language papers reached people who did not read English, which is why the Press Act targeted them.
| Newspaper | Language | Linked with |
|---|---|---|
| Amrita Bazar Patrika | Bengali, then English (1878) | Calcutta |
| The Hindu | English | Madras (founded 1878) |
| Kesari | Marathi | Bal Gangadhar Tilak |
| The Bengalee | English | Surendranath Banerjee |
Key terms
- Public opinion
The views shared by many people on public questions, shaped by debate and the Press.
6. Foundation of the Indian National Congress
- Date and place: 28 December 1885, Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (planned for Poona, moved because of disease).
- Founder: A. O. Hume, a retired Indian Civil Service officer.
- First session: President W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates.
- Second session: Calcutta, 1886; President Dadabhai Naoroji.
- Immediate objectives: a common platform for nationalists; unity across region, religion and caste; framing demands; training public opinion.
- Earlier bodies: e.g. the Indian Association (1876) of Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose.
- Safety-valve theory: one view that Hume wanted a peaceful outlet for discontent; another view stresses Indian leaders using his help to build a national platform.
| Point | Fact |
|---|---|
| Date | 28 December 1885 |
| Place | Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (moved from Poona) |
| Founder | A. O. Hume, a retired Indian Civil Service officer |
| First session President | W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates |
| Second session | Calcutta, 1886; President Dadabhai Naoroji |
| View of the Congress's origin | Main argument |
|---|---|
| Safety-valve view | Hume wanted a peaceful outlet for growing discontent |
| Indian-initiative view | Indian leaders, already organising, used Hume's help to gain a national platform |
Key terms
- Safety-valve theory
The view that the Congress was meant to let off Indian discontent peacefully; one interpretation among others.
Exam tips
Common mistakes
- Giving 1877 for the Press Act (it was 1878; the Durbar was 1877).
- Saying the Press Act covered English papers.
- Confusing the Brahmo Samaj (Roy) with the Arya Samaj (Dayananda).
- Making Naoroji the first Congress President (it was W. C. Bonnerjee; Naoroji presided in 1886).
- Presenting the safety-valve theory as settled fact.
How marks are usually awarded
- 1-mark items: one correct option or term.
- 2 marks: two distinct points (for a reformer, two contributions).
- 10-mark questions in 3 + 3 + 4 parts: one point per mark; the 4-mark part often asks how a factor helped nationalism or for a balanced view.